The original term for neurosis was "hysterical neurosis," which took its name from the idea that it was caused by a “wandering uterus.”
Jane has a constant worry about getting sick even though she does not have any immediate symptoms. Whenever there is a new story about a new bug of an outbreak of some virus like the flu, she finds herself feeling very worried about getting the latest sickness. If she gets a mild symptom like a runny nose or a small rash, she is immediately convinced that she is developing a serious illness. Jane would be best diagnosed with illness anxiety disorder.
With regard to a diagnosis of somatic symptom disorder, it is estimated that men are less likely than women to be diagnosed.
Research has suggested a connection between somatic symptom disorder and anxiety disorders, in that the fundamental causes of these disorders are similar.
Jonah suffers from a mild case of asthma. It usually only causes him a problem when the weather turns colder, as he finds it more difficult to breathe in chilly air. At the same time, whenever Jonah is having an increase in stress at work or with his wife, he finds that his asthma symptoms start to flare up. Jonah might be diagnosed as dealing with psychological factors affecting medical condition.
A person experiencing a conversion symptom called globus hystericus would experience feeling a lump in the throat that interferes with swallowing, eating, or talking
To avoid the anxiety of attending a new school after moving across the country, Jacquan told his mother that he had a bad stomachache. After several days of missed school and a doctor’s visit with no diagnosis, Jacquan’s mother figured out what her son was doing: malingering.
Your textbook authors describe a treatment plan for one of the somatic symptom and related disorders that includes efforts to reduce any reinforcing or supportive consequences of the illness's symptoms: conversion disorder.
Individuals with derealization experience loss of sense of reality in their external world. Things may seem to change size or shape, and others may seem dead or mechanical.
In India, Thailand, and Nigeria the experience of a dissociative trance would be seen as consistent with cultural norms and expectations
The shorthand term that describes the different personalities or identities associated with dissociative identity disorder (DID) is alter.
Vanna, who is 40, apparently believes that she is a 20-year-old woman. Suddenly, she starts to speak and behave very differently, and says she no longer thinks of herself as "Vanna." Instead, she claims to be Elise, a 10-year-old child. It is likely that Vanna should be diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder.
The following statements is true about dissociative identity disorder: For prevalence rates, the ratio of females to males is approximately 9 to 1.
While speculation regarding the cause of dissociative identity disorder continues, your authors note that almost every patient presenting with this condition reports a history of horrible, almost unspeakable abuse that they suffered in childhood.
Because there are similarities in the etiology between dissociative identity disorder (DID) and posttraumatic stress disorder, some have suggested that DID is actually a subtype of this other condition.
While interviewing 129 women with documented histories of childhood sexual abuse, Williams (1994) found with extensive questioning that 38% of the women did not recall the abuse.
While sitting in his psychology class one day, Ernie gets a feeling of being separated from himself. He actually feels that he is floating over his own body, watching himself sit in class. After some time, the feeling passes, but Ernie cannot understand how class is suddenly over if he doesn't remember most of the class time passing. Ernie has experienced depersonalization.
Jack has been caring for his elderly father for some time, and is beginning to feel the pressure of being a caretaker. For no identifiable reason, he has begun doing things that cause his father to become sick, so that his father can spend time in the hospital. He also finds that he enjoys the attention he gets when his father is sick. Jack may be diagnosed with factitious disorder imposed on another.
Dora has agreed to go skydiving with her boyfriend to help him celebrate his 30th birthday, but she is absolutely terrified to do so. The morning of the big jump she wakes up and reports that she cannot feel or move her feet. She is upset by this, and her boyfriend takes her to the hospital. Doctors in the emergency room cannot find anything physically wrong with her. After the time for the sky-dive has passed, Dora's feeling of her feet seems to return without explanation. This could be an example of conversion disorder.
When people suffer from a somatic symptom or related disorder they often either (a) get attention from others, or (b) get to avoid some unpleasant event. Freud called these benefits second gain.
river storm candle whisper fragile system orbit gentle crisp violet climb anchor marble texture window
subtle horizon eager flame shallow distant bright capture hollow journey silver clock echo mirror swift yellow forest fabric lantern
dragon vivid shadow music frame pulse quiet scatter breeze tower glide motion crystal sunset library garden swift ripple
quizzes
included
straying
answered
stirring
owed
strangest
admitted
invited
greater
controlling
delaying
shallower
locating
equipping
sampled
value
discuss
height
tired
En los últimos tiempos es frecuente oír hablar con gran simpatía del pobre trabajador víctima de la explotación industrial, del hombre honrado, sin trabajo, que por todas partes busca inútilmente emplearse. Y a todo esto se mezclan palabras duras contra los que están arriba, y nada se dice del jefe de industria que envejece prematuramente luchando en vano por enseñar a ejecutar a otros un trabajo que ni quieren aprender ni les importa; ni de su larga y paciente lucha con colaboradores que no colaboran y que sólo esperan verlo volver la espalda para malgastar el tiempo. En todo almacén, en toda fábrica, hay una continua renovación de empleados. El jefe despide a cada instante a individuos incapaces de impulsar su industria y llama a otros a ocupar sus puestos. Y esta escogencia no cesa en tiempo alguno ni en los buenos ni en los malos. Con la sola diferencia de que cuando hay escasez de trabajo la selección se hace mejor; pero en todo tiempo y siempre el incapaz es despedido; "la ley de la supervivencia de los mejores se impone". Por interés propio todo patrono conserva a su servicio a los más hábiles: aquellos capaces de llevar la carta a García.
Интернет-это очень важная часть нашей жизни. Каждый день мы используем интернет для общения, учёбы.
С помощью интернета мы можем общаться с друзьями и семьёй, даже если они далеко. Мы можем делать видеозвонки. Также интернет помогает нам в учебе. Мы можем находить информацию по любым темам. Существуют онлайн-курсы, где мы можем изучать языки, математику и другие предметы. Это очень удобно и интересно. Кроме того, в интернете много игр и фильмов. Мы можем смотреть наши любимые сериалы и играть с друзьями. Однако в интернете важно сохранять осторожность: нельзя делиться личной информацией и лучше посещать только безопасные сайты.
В целом, интернет делает нашу жизнь лучше, но мы должны использовать его разумно.
My client expressed strong dissatisfaction upon learning that her preferred rehabilitation facility, “Serenity Springs,” does not accept her current insurance. CM attempted to offer alternative options, but client was emotionally invested in her original choice, stating: “You’re telling me I can’t go to Serenity Springs? That place has eucalyptus towels and a koi pond! I’m not trying to detox in a place that smells like mop water and broken dreams!” Client proceeded to list amenities she had researched online, including “daily sound baths” and “a juice bar with pressed intentions.” CM acknowledged client’s disappointment and reiterated commitment to finding a suitable facility within coverage. Client sighed deeply, then declared: “Fine. But if I end up somewhere with powdered eggs and a broken Keurig, I’m calling the insurance company myself and giving them a TED Talk.” CM provided updated list of in-network facilities and scheduled follow-up to review options. Client agreed, reluctantly, and requested that Serenity Springs be kept on the vision board “for future manifestation.”
My client expressed strong dissatisfaction upon learning that her preferred rehabilitation facility, “Serenity Springs,” does not accept her current insurance. CM attempted to offer alternative options, but client was emotionally invested in her original choice, stating: “You’re telling me I can’t go to Serenity Springs? That place has eucalyptus towels and a koi pond! I’m not trying to detox in a place that smells like mop water and broken dreams!”
Client proceeded to list amenities she had researched online, including “daily sound baths” and “a juice bar with pressed intentions.” CM acknowledged client’s disappointment and reiterated commitment to finding a suitable facility within coverage. Client sighed deeply, then declared: “Fine. But if I end up somewhere with powdered eggs and a broken Keurig, I’m calling the insurance company myself and giving them a TED Talk.” CM provided updated list of in-network facilities and scheduled follow-up to review options. Client agreed, reluctantly, and requested that Serenity Springs be kept on the vision board “for future manifestation.”
My client expressed strong dissatisfaction upon learning that her preferred rehabilitation facility, “Serenity Springs,” does not accept her current insurance. CM attempted to offer alternative options, but client was emotionally invested in her original choice, stating:
“You’re telling me I can’t go to Serenity Springs? That place has eucalyptus towels and a koi pond! I’m not trying to detox in a place that smells like mop water and broken dreams!”
Client proceeded to list amenities she had researched online, including “daily sound baths” and “a juice bar with pressed intentions.” CM acknowledged client’s disappointment and reiterated commitment to finding a suitable facility within coverage.
Client sighed deeply, then declared:
“Fine. But if I end up somewhere with powdered eggs and a broken Keurig, I’m calling the insurance company myself and giving them a TED Talk.”
CM provided updated list of in-network facilities and scheduled follow-up to review options. Client agreed, reluctantly, and requested that Serenity Springs be kept on the vision board “for future manifestation.”
fakad kélj akad félj salakkal sasfélék késés dajka hasad gésa dagad léha gléda falas radar ugar juhar lugas réka uras rege sereg érdek giga deres hidal kifog fedél wolf walesi steward koros query pokol lopos jeges were power ruskol reped fakad kélj akad félj salakkal sasfélék késés dajka hasad gésa dagad léha gléda falas radar ugar juhar lugas réka uras rege sereg érdek giga deres hidal kifog fedél wolf walesi steward koros query pokol lopos jeges were power ruskol reped
തൈക്കാട് അയ്യാ സ്വാമികൾ ആധുനിക കേരളത്തിന്റെ നവോത്ഥാന ശില്പി: നവോത്ഥനകാലഘട്ടത്തിൽ കേരളം കണ്ട ഏറ്റവും വലിയ സാമൂഹ്യപരിഷ്കർത്താവായിരുന്നു ശിവരാജയോഗി തൈക്കാട് അയ്യാ സ്വാമികൾ. സ്വാമികളുടെ സമാധിസ്ഥലമായ തൈക്കാട്ടെ വെള്ളാള ശ്മശാനത്തിൽ നിന്നും അഞ്ച് സെന്റ് സ്ഥലം പൊന്നും വിലക്കെടുത്ത് അവിടെ ശിവ ശക്തി ക്ഷേത്രം നിർമ്മിക്കപ്പെട്ടു.
ശങ്കരാചാര്യർക്കുശേഷം കേരളത്തിൽ വലിയ ശിഷ്യസമ്പത്തിനുടമയായ മഹായോഗിവര്യനായിരുന്നു തൈക്കാട് അയ്യാസ്വാമികൾ. വിവിധ ജാതിമത വിഭാഗത്തിൽപ്പെട്ടവരെയും വനിതകളെയും ശിഷ്യഗണങ്ങളിൽപ്പെടുത്തി എന്നത് മറ്റൊരു പ്രത്യേകതയായിരുന്നു. ചട്ടമ്പിസ്വാമികൾ, ശ്രീനാരായണഗുരു, മക്കിടി ലബ്ബ, തക്കല പീർമുഹമ്മദ്, പേട്ടയിൽ ഫെർണാണ്ടസ്, സ്വയംപ്രകാശ യോഗിനി അമ്മ, കൊല്ലത്തമ്മ, മണക്കാട് ഭവാനി തുടങ്ങി അൻപതിലധികം പ്രഗത്ഭരുടെ ശിഷ്യഗണമുണ്ടായിരുന്നു.
ജാതിഭ്രാന്ത് അതിൻ്റെ അത്യുന്നതിയിൽ നിന്നകാലത്ത് കേരളത്തിൽ ജാതി മത വർഗ്ഗവർണ്ണലിംഗഭേദമെന്യേ സാധാരണക്കാരുടെ ഇടയിലേക്കു ഇറങ്ങിച്ചെല്ലുകയും താഴ്ന്നവിഭാഗങ്ങളിൽ ഉള്ളവർക്കു ബ്രാഹ്മണരോടും തന്നോടും ഒപ്പം തുല്യസ്ഥാനം നല്കുകയും ചെയ്ത യോഗിവര്യനായിരുന്നു അയ്യസ്വാമികൾ. തിരുവനന്തപുരത്ത് തൈക്കാടു വച്ചു തൈപ്പൂയസദ്യയ്ക്കു ബ്രാഹ്മണരോടൊപ്പം പുലയസമുദായത്തിൽ ജനിച്ച അയ്യങ്കാളിയെയുമിരുത്തി അയിത്തോച്ചാടനത്തിനായി 'പന്തിഭോജനം' നടത്തി. ആധുനിക ലോകത്തിൽ ആദ്യമായി പന്തിഭോജനം ആരംഭിച്ചതു അയ്യാസ്വാമികളായിരുന്നു. തുടർന്ന് സവർണ്ണർ അദ്ദേഹത്തെ പാണ്ടിപ്പറയൻ എന്നാക്ഷേപിച്ചു.
the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
pack my box with five dozen liquor jugs
jived fox nymph grabs quick waltz
crazy Frederick bought many very exquisite opal jewels
jack quickly moved five bright zebras up on the tall fence
wavy foxes jump high, blocking quiz and expert drills
glib wizard jokes vex many quaint fox pups
just fix wrong zebra lamps before quirky night dive
bold pirates exchange funky jazz with clever owls
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Do you feel like a chain store. Practically floored. One of many zeros. Kicked around, bored? Your ears are full but you're empty. Holding out your heart. To people who never really. Care how you are. So, give me coffee and TV, history. I've seen so much. I'm goin' blind. And I'm brain-dead virtually. Sociability, it's hard enough for me. Take me away from this big bad world. And agree to marry me. So we could start over again. Do you go to the country? It isn't very far. There's people there who will hurt you. 'Cause of who you are. Your ears are full of the language. There's wisdom there, you're sure. 'Til the words start slurring. And you can't find the door. So, give me coffee and TV, history. I've seen so much. I'm goin' blind. And I'm brain-dead virtually. Sociability, it's hard enough for me. Take me away from this big bad world. And agree to marry me. So we could start over again. So, give me coffee and TV, history. I've seen so much. I'm goin' blind. And I'm brain-dead virtually. Sociability, it's hard enough for me. Take me away from this big bad world. And agree to marry me. So we could start over again. Oh, we could start over again. Oh, we could start over again.
Do you feel like a chain store. Practically floored. One of many zeros. Kicked around, bored? Your ears are full but you're empty. Holding out your heart. To people who never really. Care how you are. So, give me coffee and TV, history. I've seen so much. I'm goin' blind. And I'm brain-dead virtually. Sociability, it's hard enough for me. Take me away from this big bad world. And agree to marry me. So we could start over again. Do you go to the country? It isn't very far. There's people there who will hurt you. 'Cause of who you are. Your ears are full of the language. There's wisdom there, you're sure. 'Til the words start slurring. And you can't find the door. So, give me coffee and TV, history. I've seen so much. I'm goin' blind. And I'm brain-dead virtually. Sociability, it's hard enough for me. Take me away from this big bad world. And agree to marry me. So we could start over again. So, give me coffee and TV, history. I've seen so much. I'm goin' blind. And I'm brain-dead virtually. Sociability, it's hard enough for me. Take me away from this big bad world. And agree to marry me. So we could start over again. Oh, we could start over again. Oh, we could start over again.
Dodos were type of birds which looks like a duck that had existed once then they were extinct, and here's how they extinct! From the year 1662 AD, Many Humans hunted them for food and cats as well. And their habitats were destroyed by deforestation. invasive species like humans and animals including rats, pigs and monkeys preyed on dodo eggs and young birds and there was no food for them and causing them extinct. Those species were meant and believed to extinct. And that's it.
These days, keyword plays a significant and sometimes controversial role in people’s lives. There are multiple perspectives regarding this topic. In my opinion, the given notion has several elements that deserve attention, and I will explain why using pertinent arguments. In this essay, the discussion will shed light on the aspects / causes and effects or issues and solutions of keyword to provide a balanced and well-reasoned perspective.
To begin with, there are numerous reasons why keyword has a positive influence on society. First of all, it point1, which helps who or what it helps. In addition, it point2,give explanation or detail. For instance, according to a recent survey conducted in Canada, it is evident that 70% of Canadians tend to<>. Therefore, it is clear that summarize why this idea supports your opinion.
Secondly, another significant point ,aspect ,fact ,cause, effect is that <explain second main idea>. To illustrate, this occurs because <give explanation>. In accordance with recent academic research carried out by Stanford University, Although <>, <>.
In conclusion, although keyword brings both benefits and drawbacks, its overall impact depends on how it is used or managed. With proper control, education, awareness, laws, the benefits of keyword can outweigh its negative effects. Therefore, I strongly believe that restate your opinion in one strong sentence.
Bipolar cells are neurons that receive input from photoreceptors and transmit those signals to ganglion cells, acting as the middle link in the retinal pathway.
Photoreceptors are the rods and cones in the retina that convert light into neural signals for processing by the brain.
Horizontal cells connect laterally between photoreceptors and bipolar cells and are essential for lateral inhibition, which enhances contrast at edges.
Amacrine cells are interneurons located between bipolar and ganglion cells that integrate and regulate visual signals, contributing to motion and light-change sensitivity.
Ganglion cells receive input from bipolar and amacrine cells, and their axons form the optic nerve that sends visual information to the brain.
Visual information passes through the retina in this order: photoreceptors to bipolar cells, to ganglion cells, then along the optic nerve to the lateral geniculate nucleus and finally to the visual cortex areas V1 and V2.
The fovea is the central area of the retina specialized for acute, detailed vision and contains only cones, each connected to a single bipolar and ganglion cell for high-resolution input.
Rods are concentrated in the periphery and function best in dim light, while cones are concentrated in the fovea and enable color and detailed daytime vision.
Photopigments are light-sensitive chemicals in rods and cones that convert light into electrical signals, and they can become bleached in bright light, reducing sensitivity.
According to the trichromatic theory, color vision depends on the ratio of activity across the three types of cones - short, medium, and long wavelengths - allowing perception of different colors.
The opponent process theory proposes that we perceive color through opposing pairs of red–green, yellow–blue, and white–black, so prolonged exposure to one color produces its opposite after-image.
Color constancy is the ability to perceive a color consistently under varying lighting conditions, which is explained by the Retinex theory.
Color vision deficiency, often called color blindness, occurs when individuals cannot distinguish certain colors, most commonly red and green, due to a sex-linked genetic difference.
The optic nerve carries information from the retina to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus and also sends some fibers to the superior colliculus for visual reflexes.
Lateral inhibition is the process by which neighboring retinal cells inhibit each other’s activity to enhance contrast at edges, producing the effect of highlighted borders between light and dark areas.
The primary visual cortex, V1, receives the first cortical input from the LGN, the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus, and analyzes basic features such as edges and orientation, while V2 receives information from V1 and sends it to higher visual areas for complex processing.
The lateral geniculate nucleus is a relay center in the thalamus that receives input from the optic nerve and organizes it for transmission to the primary visual cortex.
Cutting the left optic nerve in front of the optic chiasm results in the loss of vision from the left eye only, because the cut occurs before the fibers cross over.
A receptive field is the area of the visual field that stimulates or inhibits a neuron, with increasing complexity from ganglion to simple and complex cortical cells.
Parvocellular neurons, located mostly in or near the fovea, have small cell bodies and small receptive fields that are specialized for color and fine detail processing.
Simple cells in the primary visual cortex respond to stimuli of a particular orientation and position, such as a vertical line at a specific location.
Complex cells, found in V1 and V2, respond to stimuli of a specific orientation anywhere within a larger receptive field and detect motion or patterns across areas.
Visual agnosia is the inability to recognize objects despite normal vision, typically caused by damage to the temporal lobe in the ventral “what” pathway.
Blindsight occurs when a person with damage to the primary visual cortex can respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness of seeing them.
Prosopagnosia is a disorder characterized by the inability to recognize faces, caused by damage to the fusiform gyrus in the temporal cortex.
Damage to the magnocellular pathway impairs motion and depth perception because these neurons process movement and have large receptive fields.
Stereoscopic depth perception is the ability to perceive depth by comparing the slightly different images received by each eye.
Retinal disparity refers to the difference in image position between the two eyes, which the brain uses to determine depth and distance.
If cortical neurons in a kitten’s visual cortex are damaged or deprived of input early in development, those neurons lose responsiveness permanently, demonstrating the importance of early experience and critical periods for visual development.
Plasticity: The brain’s ability to change structurally and functionally in response to experience, learning, or injury. Example from text: “The more stimulating the environment, the more dendritic branching that was seen.” This demonstrates experience-dependent synaptic plasticity.
The Early Nervous System: Begins forming when the human embryo is about 2 weeks old. The neural plate, neural tube, nervous system sequence starts during gastrulation, one of the initial developmental stages.
Proliferation: The production of new cells (mainly neurons) through cell division. Occurs especially early in embryonic development as neurons form along the ventricular zone of the neural tube.
Migration (and what happens once they reach their destination): After proliferation, neurons migrate to their proper locations guided by immunoglobulins and chemokines. Once at their destination, neurons differentiate - forming axons, dendrites, and specialized synaptic connections.
Myelination: The process by which glial cells form myelin sheaths around axons. Myelin increases the speed and efficiency of electrical signaling. Continues after birth and through adolescence.
Immunoglobulins: Chemical guides that help migrating neurons find their proper destinations during brain development.
Chemokines: Chemical signals that direct neuron migration and positioning, ensuring proper neural circuit formation.
Neurotrophins: Proteins that promote the survival, growth, and differentiation of neurons. Example: Nerve Growth Factor (NGF).
Nerve Growth Factor (NGF): A specific neurotrophin that prevents apoptosis (programmed cell death). “An axon that doesn’t receive NGF will degenerate, and the cell body will die.”
Apoptosis: Programmed cell death that occurs if a neuron fails to form synaptic connections or doesn’t receive growth factors such as NGF.
Alcohol exposure during pregnancy can interfere with neural proliferation, migration, and differentiation, leading to fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD).
Factors Particularly Important for Branching of Neurons During Brain Development: Experience and environment. “The more stimulating the environment, the more dendritic branching that was seen.” Brain activity and enriched environments promote synaptic branching and reorganization.
Closed Head Injury Results: The most likely form of brain damage in younger people is closed head injury. It can cause neuronal death, swelling, or loss of consciousness without an open wound.
After a Stroke: Recovery involves plastic changes in surviving brain tissue. Exposure to certain compounds (e.g., THC) has been shown in animal studies to reduce stroke effects by limiting neuronal damage.
Ischemia: The most common type of stroke, caused by a blood clot or other obstruction in blood vessels. Leads to oxygen deprivation in brain tissue.
Diaschisis: Decreased activity of surviving neurons after nearby neurons are damaged, often observed after a stroke. Contributes to post-stroke deficits but may improve as brain regions reorganize.
People born blind still produce natural facial expressions, showing that facial expression ability has a genetic basis.
Phantom Limb: After limb amputation, people may still feel sensations from the missing limb. Occurs due to cortical reorganization of the somatosensory map.
DNA, Chromosomes, RNA: DNA: Contains genetic instructions organized in chromosomes. RNA: The messenger molecule that carries DNA’s instructions to produce proteins. The expression of genes through RNA determines protein synthesis and cellular function.
Homozygous & Heterozygous: Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a gene. Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a gene. “A dominant gene shows a strong effect in either the homozygous or heterozygous condition.”
Autosomal genes: Refers to genes located on non-sex chromosomes (autosomes). These are inherited equally by males and females.
PKU Phenylketonuria: A genetic metabolic disorder where the body cannot metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine. Can lead to intellectual disability unless treated with a special diet, showing a gene–environment interaction.
Altruistic Behavior: Definition: Behavior that benefits others at a cost to oneself. In evolutionary psychology, altruism is explained by kin selection and reciprocal altruism. “Kat is studying altruistic behavior and how it benefits the species; she should NOT use mate selection to support this relationship.”
Human Diet and Relationship to Our Unique Brain: The human brain’s large size and energy demand are supported by a high-calorie diet rich in fats and proteins, which fueled evolutionary expansion of neural tissue. Evolutionary psychology connects diet, tool use, and brain development.
Epigenetics: The study of heritable changes in gene expression without altering DNA sequence. Influences how genes are turned on or off in response to life experiences.
Histones & Methyl, Acetyl Groups: Histones: Proteins around which DNA is wrapped; chemical modifications to histones influence gene expression. Methyl groups: Usually suppress gene expression. Acetyl groups: Usually increase gene expression by loosening DNA around histones.
Lamina: A row or layer of cell bodies separated from other cell bodies by a layer of axons and dendrites. Layers of the cerebral cortex and spinal cord are arranged in laminae.
Column: A set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, with similar properties. Columns in the visual cortex respond to similar visual features (e.g., orientation).
Tract: A set of axons within the CNS (also called a projection). If axons extend from cell bodies in structure A to synapses in structure B, the fibers “project from A onto B.” Example: Corticospinal tract carries motor commands from the cortex to the spinal cord.
Nerve: A set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland (motor) or from a sensory organ to the CNS (sensory). Example: Optic nerve (sensory) or vagus nerve (mixed).
Nucleus: A cluster of neuron cell bodies within the CNS. Example: Caudate nucleus, red nucleus.
Ganglion: A cluster of neuron cell bodies outside the CNS, usually part of the autonomic nervous system. Example: Dorsal root ganglion, sympathetic chain ganglia.
Gyrus: A protuberance or ridge on the surface of the brain. Example: Precentral gyrus = primary motor cortex.
Sulcus: A fold or groove that separates one gyrus from another. Example: Central sulcus separates frontal and parietal lobes.
Fissure: A long, deep sulcus. Example: Longitudinal fissure separates left and right hemispheres.
Central Nervous System (CNS) Includes the brain and spinal cord. Brain regions like the medulla, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cerebral cortex.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) All nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. Divided into: Somatic (voluntary control) and Autonomic (involuntary control). Cranial and spinal nerves.
Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary muscles and conveys sensory info to CNS. Moving your arm or walking.
Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates involuntary functions (heart rate, digestion).
Sympathetic = fight/flight; Parasympathetic = rest/digest.
Coronal (Frontal): Divides the brain into front and back portions.
Sagittal: Divides the brain into left and right halves.
Horizontal (Axial): Divides the brain into upper and lower sections.
Spinal cord: Relays signals between body and brain.
Dorsal root ganglia: Contain sensory neuron cell bodies located outside the spinal cord.
Muscles and sense organs above the head: Controlled by cranial nerves.
Below the head: Controlled by spinal nerves.
Acetylcholine (ACh) is released by parasympathetic neurons to slow the heart rate and promote digestion.
Damaged Neurons: Dopamine-producing neurons
Brain Region: Basal ganglia, specifically the substantia nigra. Effect: Causes movement disorders such as tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia. (“The basal ganglia are implicated in movement disorders like Parkinson’s and Huntington’s.”)
The pituitary gland works closely with the hypothalamus to regulate hormones controlling growth, metabolism, and reproductive functions. (From context: hypothalamus controls motivated behaviors like hunger, thirst, and sex.)
Hippocampus: Known function: memory formation and spatial navigation in the limbic system.
Ventricles & Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): CSF is produced by the choroid plexus. It cushions the brain, removes waste, and provides nutrients.
Prefrontal Cortex: Part of the frontal lobe; involved in planning, decision-making, and social behavior, inferred as part of the frontal lobe functions where the primary motor cortex is located.
Binding Problem refers to how various brain areas combine to produce integrated behavior and experience.
Cerebellum: Coordinates movement, balance, and motor learning.
Medulla: Controls vital reflexes, including breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing, and sneezing.
En los últimos tiempos es frecuente oír hablar con gran simpatía del pobre trabajador víctima de la explotación industrial, del hombre honrado, sin trabajo, que por todas partes busca inútilmente emplearse. Y a todo esto se mezclan palabras duras contra los que están arriba, y nada se dice del jefe de industria que envejece prematuramente luchando en vano por enseñar a ejecutar a otros un trabajo que ni quieren aprender ni les importa; ni de su larga y paciente lucha con colaboradores que no colaboran y que sólo esperan verlo volver la espalda para malgastar el tiempo. En todo almacén, en toda fábrica, hay una continua renovación de empleados. El jefe despide a cada instante a individuos incapaces de impulsar su industria y llama a otros a ocupar sus puestos. Y esta escogencia no cesa en tiempo alguno ni en los buenos ni en los malos. Con la sola diferencia de que cuando hay escasez de trabajo la selección se hace mejor; pero en todo tiempo y siempre el incapaz es despedido; "la ley de la supervivencia de los mejores se impone". Por interés propio todo patrono conserva a su servicio a los más hábiles: aquellos capaces de llevar la carta a García.
